Table 5 Multilevel determinants of home deliveries in Zambia, ZDHS 1992–2018
From: Trends, spatial distribution and determinants of maternal home deliveries in Zambia
Background Characteristics | 1992 DHS (aOR) | 1996 DHS (aOR) | 2001/2 DHS (aOR) | 2007 DHS (aOR) | 2013/14 DHS (aOR) | 2018 DHS (aOR) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Intercept | 6.88 (2.09–26.33) ** | 5.58(1.15–26.89) * | 2.97 (0.80–11.12) | 28.21 (4.75–167.54) *** | 3.00(1.08–8.29) * | 5.23(1.33–20.60) * |
Individual Factors | ||||||
Age | ||||||
15–24 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
25–34 | 0.81 (0.66–1.00) | 1.02 (0.83–1.26) | 0.77 (0.61–0.98) * | 0.95 (0.75–1.22) | 0.82(0.66–1.01) | 1.02(0.76–1.37) |
35–49 | 0.76 (0.56–1.04) | 0.88 (0.68–1.13) | 0.78 (0.55–1.12) | 1.01 (0.76–1.33) | 0.80(0.63–1.01) | 0.88(0.63-1,01) |
Marital status | ||||||
Single | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Married | 1.14 (0.73–1.76) | 0.68 (0.46–1.02) | 1.03 (0.68–1.54) | 1.34 (0.87–2.06) | 0.73(0.54–0.98) * | 0.81(0.57–1.15) |
Divorced/Widowed/Seperated | 1.489(0.96–2.30) | 0.71 (0.48–1.05) | 1.23 (0.78–1.95) | 0.96 (0.57–1.60) | 1.00(0.71–1.43) | 1.30(0.83–2.03) |
Education status | ||||||
No education | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
Primary | 0.60 (0.47–0.76) *** | 0.60 (0.47–0.78) *** | 0.49 (0.37–0.64) *** | 0.61 (0.45–0.83) ** | 0.76(0.62–0.94) ** | 0.65(0.49–0.88) ** |
Secondary | 0.23 (0.17–0.31) *** | 0.22 (0.16–0.30) *** | 0.18 (0.13–0.25) *** | 0.39 (0.27–0.56) *** | 0.45(0.35–0.58) *** | 0.38(0.26–0.56) *** |
Higher | 0.06 (0.01–0.25) *** | 0.07 (0.02–0.21) *** | 0.06 (0.01–0.37) *** | 0.04 (0.01–0.20) *** | 0.17(0.07–0.41) *** | 0.037(0.01–0.17) *** |
Wealth index | ||||||
Poor | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Middle | na | na | na | 0.76 (0.61–0.94) * | 0.86(0.74–1.02) | 0.71(0.55–0.91) ** |
Rich | na | na | na | 0.37 (0.26–0.53) *** | 0.50(0.38–0.66) *** | 0.48(0.31–0.74) *** |
Access to media | ||||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
Yes | 0.91 (0.76–1.09) | 0.90(0.78–1.04) | 0.89(0.71–1.11) | |||
Sex of household head | ||||||
Male | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Female | 0.86(0.63–1.17) | 0.95(0.76–1.20) | 0.97(0.74–1.26) | 1,04((0.78–1.37) | 0.90(0.74–1.08) | 1.03(0.80–1.33) |
Religious denomination | ||||||
Catholic | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Protestants | 1.04 (0.84–1.30) | 1.07 (0.88–1.30) | 1.14 (0.90–1.44) | 0.97 (0.75–1.25) | 1.23(1.01–1.50) * | 1.01(0.77–1.29) |
Muslims | 0.32 (0.12–0.87) * | 0.56 (0.15–2.05) | 0.08 (0.00–4.23) | 0.83 (0.26–2.63) | 0.18(0.03–1.07) | 4.04(0.78–22.45) |
Other | 1.67 (1.00–2.78) | 1.70 (0.94–3.05) | 2.16 (1.00–4.76) * | 1.50 (0.76–2.99) | 0.98(0.45–2.12) | 1.17(0.55–2.47) |
Parity | ||||||
1 child | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
2 to 4 children | 1.77 (1.38–2.27) *** | 1.59 (1.27–2.01) *** | 1.67 (1.29–2.16) *** | 1.83 (1.33–2.52) *** | 2.37(1.83–3.04) *** | 2.48(1.83–3.33) *** |
5 or children | 1.80 (1.27–2.58) *** | 2.08 (1.48–2.99) *** | 1.69 (1.17–2.42) *** | 2,02 (1.40–2.91) *** | 3.26(2.36–4.49) *** | 3.07(2.06–4.58) *** |
ANC | ||||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Yes | 0.04 (0.02–0.08) *** | 0.09 (0.04–0.21) *** | 0.09 (0.05–0.17) *** | 0.02 (0.01–0.08) *** | 0.05(0.05–0.08) *** | 0.04(0.02–0.08) *** |
Employment status | ||||||
Not working | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Working | 1.04 (0.85–1.27) | 1.10 (0.92–1.31) | 1.12 (0.90–1.40) | 0.87 (0.72–1.07) | 0.96(0.08–1.13) | 1.07(0.88–1.31) |
Selected contextual factors | ||||||
Place of residence | ||||||
Urban | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Rural | 4.18 (2.72–6.40) *** | 4.91 (3.21–7.53) *** | 3.07 (1.98–4.75) *** | 3.79 (2.53–5.67) *** | 2.25(1.72–2.96) *** | 2.04(1.19–3.51) ** |
Region | ||||||
Central | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Copperbelt | 0.38 (0.21–0.72) ** | 0.32 (0.17–0.63) *** | 0.51 (0.27–0.96) | 0.45 (0.23–0.87) * | 0.48(0.30–0.76) ** | 0.62(0.33–1.16) |
Eastern | 0.54 (0.31–0.93) * | 0.47 (0.26–0.85) * | 0.82 (0.43–1.55) | 0.29 (0.16–0.51) *** | 0.19((0.12–0.31) *** | 1.00(0.05–0.18) *** |
Luapula | 0.96 (0.50–1.82) | 0.78 (0.41–1.50) | 0.87 (0.47–1.61) | 0.71 (0.42–1.20) | 0.28(0.17–0.46) *** | 0.20(0.05–0.19) *** |
Lusaka | 0.41 (0.23–0.75) ** | 0.31 (0.17–0.58) *** | 0.42 (0.25–0.75) *** | 0.39 (0.22–0.69) *** | 0.33(0.21–0.53) *** | 0.76(0.43–1.34) |
Muchinga | na | na | na | na | 0.43(0.26–0.71) ** | 0.40(0.21–0.76) ** |
Northern | 1.84 (0.99–3.41) | 1.00 (0.55–1.81) | 1.18 (0.69–2.00) | 0.86 (0.47–1.57) | 0.72(0.44–1.17) | 0.65(0.32–1.31) |
North-westen | 0.30 (0.14–0.64) ** | 0.16 (0.07–0.34) *** | 0.45 (0.21–0.96) | 0.37 (0.20–0.70) ** | 0.24(0.15–0.39) *** | 0.30(0.14–0.61) *** |
Southern | 0.95 (0.54–1.67) | 0.86 (0.47–1.60) | 1.36 (0.67–2.76) | 0.81 (0.49–1.33) | 0.74(0.48–1.13) | 0.62(0.33–1.19) |
Western | 0.67 (0.35–1.28) | 0.45 (0.24–0.86) * | 0.72 (0.40–1.32) | 0.36 (0.19–0.70) ** | 0.46(0.28–0.75) ** | 0.60(0.34–1.07) |
Community education | ||||||
Low | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Medium | 1.56 (0.80–3.02) | 3.47(1.45–8.33) *** | 3.50 (1.38–8.88) * | 1.38 (0.60–3.16) | 2.87(1.80–4.31) *** | 1.58(0.89–2.80) * |
High | 3.24 (0.59-2.93- 2.78) *** | 5.66 (2.33–13.73) *** | 9.74 (3.72–25.51) *** | 2.03 (0.84–4.90) | 4.05(2.49–6.57) *** | 0.50(0.22–1.17) |
Community media access | ||||||
Low | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Medium | na | na | na | 1.25 (0.73–2.15) | 1.18(0.79–1.77) | 0.98(0.46–2.08) |
high | na | na | na | 1.001(0.51–2.50) | 1.33(0.84–2.09) | 0.99(0.45–2.16) |
Community employment status | ||||||
low | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Medium | 1.01 (0.53–1.95) | 0.62 (0.27–1.46) | 0.62 (0.38–1.00*) | 0.79 (0.40–1.57) | 0.62(0.42–0.91) * | 0.37(0.15–0.91) |
high | 1.01 (0.50–2.03) | 0.55 (0.23–1.33) | 0.55 (0.29–1.03) | 0.77 (0.38–1.58) | 0.77(0.52–1.14) | 0.50(0.22–1.17) |
ICC | 0.1766 | 0.1766 | 0.2481 | 0.1656 | 0.2146 | 0.2710 |
Variance | ||||||
AIC | 5824.77 | 6861.74 | 4223.49 | 4241.57 | 8369.67 | 4665.66 |
BIC | 6033.68 | 7075.00 | 4421.99 | 4469.17 | 8625.87 | 4913.48 |