Table 1 Characteristics of mothers and infants

Demographic and antenatal data

Ethnicity

Caucasian

28 (100)

11 (100)

17(100)

Age (years)

32.9 ± 3.6*

31.2 ± 3.0*

33.9 ± 3.7*

Prepregnancy BMI (kg/m²)

30.4 ± 7.5*

26.5 ± 6.4*

32.5 ± 7.3*

GDM treatment

 Insulin + diet

7(25)

0(0)

7(41.18)

 Hypoglycemic agent + diet

2(7.1)

0(0)

2(11.8)

 Diet

7(25.0)

0(0)

7(41.2)

 None

12(42.9)

11(100)

1(5.9)

Cesarean section

 Yes

2(7.1)

1(9.1)

1(5.9)

 No

26(92.9)

10(91.0)

16(94.1)

Pregnancy weight gain (kg)

10.3 ± 4.7

11.6 ± 4.9

9.6 ± 4.5

Gestational age (weeks)

39.0 ± 1.2*

39.7 ± 0.9*

38.5 ± 1.1*

Metabolic at 2 months post postpartum

BMI (kg/m²)

30.9 ± 6.8

28.3 ± 6.2

32.5 ± 6.9

BMI groups

 Normal

4(14.3)

3(27.3)

1(5.9)

 Overweight

10(50)

4(36.4)

6(35.3)

 Obese

14(35.7)

4(36.4)

10(58.8)

Fat mass (%)

42.1 ± 7.4

38.9 ± 8.6

44.2 ± 5.9

Android fat (%)

45.1 ± 9.8

41.0 ± 12.7

47.8 ± 6.6

Gynoid fat (%)

47.1 ± 7.5

44.0 ± 7.9

49.1 ± 6.7

Fasting glycemia (mmol/L)

5.0 ± 0.4

4.9 ± 0.3

5.0 ± 0.4

2-Hour glycemia (mmol/L)

5.5 ± 1.1*

4.9 ± 0.8*

5.9 ± 1.2*

Fasting insulinemia (pmol/L)

56.0 ± 34.4

59.5 ± 23.4

53.6 ± 478.0

2-Hour insulinemia (pmol/L)

282.0 ± 174.5*

197.3 ± 96.2*

329.6 ± 192.5*

HbA1c (%)

5.2 ± 0.3

5.2 ± 0.3

5.2 ± 0.3

HOMA-IR

1.81 ± 1.16

1.90 ± 1.56

1.75 ± 0.85

Infant feeding practices

Any Breastfeeding

 Yes

27(96.4)

11(100)

16(94.1)

 No

1(3.6)

0(0)

1(5.9)

Exclusive breastfeeding

 Yes

23(82.1)

11(100)

12(70.6)

 No

5(17.9)

0(0)

5(29.4)

Infants

Characteristics

Total, n = 30

GDM-, n = 13

GDM+, n = 17

Sex

 Male

14(46.7)

4(30.8)

10(58.8)

 Female

16(53.3)

9(69.2)

7(41.2)

Age (days)

82.0 ± 12.9*

72.8 ± 10.7*

89.3 ± 9.6*

Birth weight (kg)

3.39 ± 0.37

3.40 ± 0.45

3.37 ± 0.31

Weight at 2 months (kg)

5.11 ± 0.80

5.09 ± 0.55

5.12 ± 0.10

Birth weight-for-age z-score

0.19 ± 0.79

0.25 ± 0.94

0.14 ± 0.68

Weight-for-age z-score at 2 months

-0.20 ± 0.90

-0.20 ± 0.84

-0.20 ± 0.97

Change in weight-for-age z-score from birth to 2 months

-0.39 ± 0.84

-0.46 ± 0.81

-0.34 ± 0.89